National Social Norms Institute

Articles on the Social Norms Approach - Supporting Literature for Prevention

2009

Keller, A., Frye, L., Bauerle, J., & Turner, J.C. (2009). Legal ages for purchase and consumption of alcohol and heavy drinking among college students in Canada, Europe, and the United States. Substance Abuse, 30, 248-252. go to summary

Latkin, C., Donnell, D., Celentano, D.D., Aramrattna, A., Liu, T.Y., Vongchak, T. et al. (2009). Relationships between social norms, social network characteristics, and HIV behaviors in Thailand and the United States. Health Psychology, 28 (3), 323-329. go to summary

2008

Duffett-Leger, L.A., Letourneau, N.L., & Croll, J.C. (2008). Cervical cancer screening practices among university women. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 37, 572-581. go to summary

Wechsler, H. & Nelson, T.F. (2008). What we have learned from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study: Focusing attention on college student alcohol consumption and the environment conditions that promote it. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 481-490. go to summary

2007

Carey, K.B., Scott-Sheldon, L.A.J., Carey, M. P. & DeMartini, K.S. (2007). Individual-level interventions to reduce college student drinking: a meta-analytic review. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2469-2494. go to summary

Chawla, N., Neighbors, C., Lewis, M.A., Lee, M.A., & Larimer, M.A. (2007) Attitudes and perceived approval of drinking as mediators of the relationship between the importance of religion and alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68 (3), 410-418. go to summary

Cialdini, R. (2007). Descriptive social norms as underappreciated sources of social control. Psychometrika, 72 (2), 263-268. go to summary

Fisher, T.D. (2007). Sex of experimenter and social norm effects on reports of sexual behavior in young men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36 (1), 89-100. go to summary

2006

The American College Health Association. (2006). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) Spring 2004 Reference Group Data Report (Abridged). Journal of American College Health, 54 (4), 201-211. go to summary

Bohner, G., Siebler, F., & Schmelcher, J. (2006). Social norms and the likelihood of raping: perceived rape myth acceptance of others affects men's rape proclivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32 (3), 286-297. go to summary

Chia, S.C., & Gunther, A.C. (2006). How media contribute to misperceptions of social norms about sex. Mass Communication and Society, 9 (3), 301-320. go to summary

Cho, H. (2006). Readiness to change, norms, and self-efficacy among heavy-drinking college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (1), 131-138. go to summary

Haines, M.P., Barker, G., & Rice, R. (2006). The personal protective behaviors of college student drinkers: Evidence of indigenous protective norms. Journal of American College Health, 55 (2), 69-75. go to summary

LaBrie, J.W., Lamb, T.F., Pedersen, E.R., & Quinlan, T. (2006). A group motivational interviewing intervention reduces drinking and alcohol-related consequences in adjudicated college students. Journal of College Student Development, 47 (3), 267-280. go to summary

Weiss J. W, & Garbanati J.A. (2006). Effects of acculturation and social norms on adolescent smoking among Asian-American subgroups. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 5 (2), 75-90. go to summary

Wight, D., Plummer, M.L., Mshana, G., Wamoyi, J., Shigongo, Z.S., & Ross, D.A. (2006). Contradictory sexual norms and expectations for young people in rural northern Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine, 6, 987-997. go to summary

2005

American College Health Association. (2005). "The American College Health Association National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA), Spring 2003 Reference Group Report." Journal of American College Health, 53 (5), 199-210. go to summary

Bernburg, J.G. (2005). Violent values, conduct norms, and youth aggression: A multilevel study in Iceland. The Sociological Quarterly, 46, 457-478. go to summary

Braxton, J. & Caboni, T. (2005). Using student norms to create positive learning environments. About Campus, 9 (6), 2-7. go to summary

Dworkin, J. (2005). Risk taking as developmentally appropriate experimentation for college students. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20 (2), 219-241. go to summary

Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: a Framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399-419. go to summary

Haines, M. (2005). Habituation and Social Norms. The Report on Social Norms, 4 (7)1-8. (Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) go to summary

Lapinski, M.K., & Rimal, R.N. (2005). An explication of social norms. Communication Theory, 15 (2), 127-147. go to summary

Lederman. L. & Stewart, L. (2005). Changing The Culture Of College Drinking: A Socially Situated Health Communication Campaign. Hampton Press. go to summary

Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Durkin, K., & Griffiths, J. (2005). Group norms, threat, and children's racial prejudice. Child Development, 76 (3), 652-663. go to summary

Ott, C.H., Cashin, S., & Altekruse, M. (2005). Development and validation of the college tobacco survey. Journal of American College Health, 53 (5), 231-238. go to summary

Russell, C., Clapp, J., & DeJong, W. (2005). Done 4: Analysis of a failed social norms marketing campaign. Health Communication, 17 (1), 57-65. go to summary

Sanchez, D.T., Crocker, J., & Boike, K.R. (2005). Doing gender in the bedroom: Investing in gender norms and the sexual experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31 (10), 1445-1455. go to summary

Schneider,S., Towvim, L.G., & DeJong, W. (2005). The social norms marketing research project: Results for Study 1. The Report on Social Norms, 4 (5). go to summary

Sorensen, S.B., & Taylor, C.A. (2005). Female aggression toward male intimate oartners: An examination of social norms in a community-based sample. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 78-96. go to summary

Taylor, C. A., & Sorensen, S.B. (2005). Community-based norms about intimate partner violence: Putting attributions of fault and responsibility into context. Sex Roles, 53 (7/8), 573-589. go to summary

Wenzel, M. (2005). Motivation or rationalisation? Causal relations between ethics, norms and tax compliance. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26, 491-508. go to summary

West, S.L., & Graham, C.W. (2005). A survey of substance abuse prevention efforts at Virginia's colleges and universities. Journal of American College Health, 54(3), 185-191. go to summary

2004

Albarracin, D., Kumkale, G.T., & Johnson, B.T. (2004). Influences of social power and normative support on condom use decisions: A research synthesis. AIDS Care, 16 (6), 700-723. go to summary

Alexander, E.N. & Bowen, A. M. (2004). Excessive drinking in college: Behavioral outcome, not binge, as a basis for prevention. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1199-1205. go to summary

Beirness, D.J., Foss, R.D., & Vogel-Sprott. M. (2004). Drinking on campus: Self-reports and breath tests. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 600-604. go to summary

Brener N.D, Eaton D.K., Lowry R., & McManus T. (2004). The association between weight perception and BMI among high school students. Obesity Research, 12 (11), 1866-1874. go to summary

Dalgety, J., & Coll, R. K. (2004). The influence of normative beliefs on students' enrollment choices. Research in Science & Technological Education, 22 (1), 59-80. go to summary

Kneeshaw, K., Vaske, J.J., Bright, A.D., & Absher, J.D. (2004). Acceptability Norms toward Fire Management in Three National Forests. Environment and Behavior, 36 (4), 592-612. go to summary

Valde, K.S., & Fitch, K.L (2004). Desire and sacrifice: Seeking compliance in designated driver talk. Western Journal of Communication, 68 (2), 121-150. go to summary

2003 & prior

Wagenaar, A.C. & Toomey, T.L. (2002). Effects of minimum drinking age laws: Review and analyses of the literature from 1960 to 2000. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 206-225. go to summary

Aminzadeh, F., & Edwards, N. (2000). Factors associated with cane use among community dwelling older adults. Public Health Nursing, 17 (6), 474-483. go to summary

2009

Cimini, M. D., Martens, M. P., Larimer, M. E., Kilmer, J. R., Neighbors, C., & Monserrat, J. M. (2009). Assessing the effectiveness of peer-facilitated interventions addressing high-risk drinking among judicially mandated college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol & Drugs, Supplement 16, 57-66. return to list

Objective:
This study examined the effectiveness of three peer-facilitated brief alcohol interventions--small group motivational interviewing, motivationally enhanced peer theater, and an interactive alcohol-education program--with students engaging in high-risk drinking who were referred for alcohol policy violations.
Method:
Undergraduate students referred for alcohol policy violations (N = 695) at a large northeastern public university were randomized to one of the three conditions. Six-month follow-up data were collected on drinking frequency and quantity, negative consequences, use of protective behaviors, and perceptions of peers' drinking norms.
Results:
There were no statistically significant overall pre-post effects or treatment effects. However, exploratory analyses indicated that decreases in perceived norms and increases in use of protective behavioral strategies were associated with reductions in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems at follow-up (p < .01). Conclusions: The presence of nonsignificant pre-post or main effects is, in part, consistent with recent research indicating that sanctioned college students may immediately reduce drinking in response to citation and that brief interventions may not contribute to additional behavioral change. The presence of statistically significant correlations between alcohol use and related problems with corrections in norms misperceptions and increased use of protective behaviors at the individual level holds promise for both research and practice. The integration of elements addressing social norms and use of protective behaviors within brief cognitive-behavioral intervention protocols delivered by trained peer facilitators warrants further study using randomized clinical trials.

Heavy drinking and associated negative consequences remain a serious problem among college students. In a secondary analysis of data from two published study, the authors examine the correlation between minimum legal age to purchase and/or consume alcohol and rates of heavy drinking among college students in 22 countries. The published studies use identical definitions of heavy drinking and similar methodologies. In the study of 20 European countries and the United States, there is a positive correlation between prevalence of heavy drinking and both minimum legal purchase age (r = .34) and minimum legal drinking age (r = .19); in the study of Canada and the United States, there is a perfect positive correlation (r = 1.0). Examination of this evidence does not support the conclusion that a lower minimum legal age for purchase and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages is a protective factor for decreasing heavy drinking among college students.

Objective:
Social norms have been associated with a wide range of health behaviors. In this study, the authors examined whether the social norms of HIV risk behaviors are clustered within social networks and whether the norms of network members are linked to the risk behaviors of their social network members.
Design:
Data were collected from the baseline assessment of 354 networks with 933 participants in a network-oriented HIV prevention intervention targeting injection drug users in Philadelphia, United States, and Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Main Outcome Measures:
Four descriptive HIV risk norms of sharing needles, cookers, and cotton and front- or back-loading among friends who inject were assessed.
Results:
Three of 4 injection risk norms (sharing needle, cookers, and cotton) were found to be significantly clustered. In Philadelphia, 1 network member’s (the index participant) norms of sharing needles and front- or back-loading were found to be significantly associated with the network members’ risk behaviors, and the norm of sharing cotton was marginally associated. Conclusion:
The results of this study suggest that among injection drug users, social norms are clustered within networks; social networks are a meaningful level of analyses for understanding how social norms lead to risk behaviors, providing important data for intervening to reduce injection-related HIV risks.

2008

Objective:
The purpose of this study was to use the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to investigate some of the factors influencing young women’s intentions to be screened for cervical cancer. This descriptive, correlational, cross-sectional study examined young university women’s knowledge, attitudes, and subjective norms regarding cervical cancer, perceived behavioral control and intentions toward cervical cancer screening, and self-reported cervical cancer screening behavior.
Method:
A total of 904 young women (mean age = 20.7 years; 96.7% heterosexual), attending a university in New Brunswick, Canada participated in an online cervical cancer screening survey. The survey, given to university women 25 years of age or less, consisted of a 77-item structured questionnaire regarding demographic, descriptive, independent and dependent variable data. The survey used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and was designed to help researchers understand young women’s Pap screening intentions and behavior.
Descriptive, correlational, and logistic regression statistics were calculated and multiple regressions were performed on Intentions on Knowledge, Attitudes, Perceived Behavioral Control, and Subjective norms and on demographic and descriptive data in stepwise regression.
Results:
Results of the survey indicated that almost 72% of the sample had had a Pap test at least once in their lifetime and 68% of those were first screened by the age of 18. The majority of young women who had ever had a Pap test revealed that they had received one within the last year (85%) and most of the women learned about the screening test from a parent (39.8%) or friend (21.6%) while only 12% had received this information from a healthcare provider. The findings indicated that social norms (perceptions about whether or not people close to them think Pap screening is important) and perceived behavioral control (perceptions about personal resources or barriers to receiving a Pap test) were significantly related to young women’s intentions to be screened. This sample of women had relatively positive attitudes about the Pap test and while their knowledge about the Pap test was moderate, their knowledge about the significance of HPV was poor.
Conclusion:
The results of the current study indicate that young women are more likely to learn about Pap tests from friends and family rather than from healthcare providers, such as nurses or physicians. Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control were significantly related to young women’s Pap screening intentions, suggesting that the TPB is a good theoretical framework for exploring the factors that influence young women’s cervical cancer screening behaviors. As such, strategies designed to promote cervical screening behaviors among young university women should consider the affect of social norms and perceived barriers on Pap screening intentions in this population.
Implications for the field:
The results of this study suggest that young women are poorly informed about the risks associated with HPV and are at risk for infection. Providing young women with accurate information about cervical screening at a younger age may have a positive influence on their intentions to get a Pap test. While many young women recognize the value of regular Pap tests as an important preventative health measure, a significant proportion of them had never had a Pap test. Researchers and practitioners should test strategies to motivate the adoption of regular Pap and gynecological health screenings.

LaBrie, J.W., Huchting, K., Tawalbeh, S., Pedersen, E.R., Thompson, A., Shelesky, K., et al. (2008). A randomized motivational enhancement prevention group reduces drinking and alcohol consequences in first-year college women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22 (1), 149-155. return to list

Objective:
The study tested a group motivational enhancement approach and weekly Web-based follow-up data collection to assess the prevention of heavy drinking among first year college women.
Method:
A sample of 261 female students enrolled in the study and completed an initial questionnaire. The questionnaire assessed demographic questions, including age, ethnicity, and family income, and was also a baseline measure of drinking attitudes and consequences. Using a randomized design, the authors assigned participants either to a group that received a single-session motivational enhancement intervention to reduce risky drinking that focused partly on women’s specific reasons for drinking (n=126) or to an assessment-only control group (n=94). Control group participants attended a 30-min scheduled group session in which they completed an in-group survey on alcohol use over the past three months with no group interaction. Motivational enhancement group participants were asked to select 1 of 25 groups to attend, with enrollment on a first-come, first-served basis. All participants completed weekly online drinking diaries for the 10 weeks following the group session, recording the number of drinks they consumed each day in the past week. At the end of the 4th and 10th weeks, participants completed the RAPI to assess consequences in the past month.
Results:
The results indicate that, relative to the control group participants, intervention participants drank fewer drinks per week, drank fewer drinks at peak consumption, had fewer binge drinking episodes per month, and reported fewer alcohol-related consequences over a 10-week follow-up than assessment-only control participants. Further, the intervention, which targeted women’s reasons for drinking, was more effective in reducing consumption for participants with high social and enhancement motivations for drinking. In addition, the main effect for maximum number of drinks consumed at one time approached significance. Exploratory analyses revealed that ethnicity did not moderate intervention efficacy.
Conclusions:
In order to reduce risk in college women who drink for coping or conformity motives, it may be necessary to design interventions addressing these specific drinking styles. The findings of this study provide potentially important implications for the prevention of high-risk alcohol use during the critical transitional period from high school to college.
Implications for the Field:
The NIAAA (2002) recommends the use of motivational enhancement interventions that simultaneously address alcohol attitudes and behaviors, counter misperceptions about peer attitudes regarding drinking, and increase motivation to change drinking habits. This particular study builds on previous motivational enhancement interventions to reduce college drinking by having a first-year female-specific group-based prevention intervention, a population at increasing risk for developing heavy alcohol use patterns and experiencing negative consequences. The results suggest that targeted interventions among specific cohorts of college students are promising.

Objective:
This article examined the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS), which was designed to provide the first nationally representative picture of college student alcohol use and to describe the drinking behavior and negative consequences of this group. The article reviews what investigators have learned about college drinking and the implications for prevention: the need to focus on lower drinking thresholds, the harms produced at this level of drinking for the drinkers, the secondhand effects experienced by other students and neighborhood residents, the continuing extent of the problem, and the role of the college alcohol environment in promoting healthy drinking by students. In particular, the roles of campus culture, alcohol control policies, enforcement of policies, access, availability, pricing and marketing, and special promotions of alcohol are highlighted.
Method:
The CAS surveyed students at a nationally representative sample of four-year colleges in the United States four times between 1993 and 2001. More than 50,000 students at 120 colleges took part in the study. The inclusion of more than 100 colleges in the four national surveys allowed for an examination of the influence of student drinking on different factors on multiple levels, including the college setting, the adjoining community, and state and regional factors. The CAS used a two-stage sampling scheme, where colleges were selected proportionate to their enrollment size and a fixed number of students were randomly selected within colleges.
Researchers examined possible contextual, environmental, and policy determinants of student drinking. These included secondhand effects, negative consequences and alcohol-related problems, the influence of the college environment and community factors, the relationship between student drinking and policy, and prevention efforts.
Results:
In 1993, the first CAS study found that 44% of four-year college students participate in binge drinking. These results are consistent with the findings of the four administrations of the CAS survey from 1993-2001 and have been corroborated by other major national surveys, including the CORE Survey, the Monitoring the Future study, the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey, and the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. A review of all of these surveys found consistent national rates of binge drinking of about 40%, despite varying sampling schemes and methodologies. Although the rate of binge drinking has remained the same, changes have been noted in the polarization of drinking behavior, with simultaneous increases in the number of abstainers and in the number of students who engage in frequent binge drinking.
         The CAS findings have shown that drinking to binge levels has a significant impact on students’ academic performance, social relationships, risk-taking behavior, and health. Over half of binge drinkers report having alcohol-related problems and negative consequences. Students who attended schools with high rates of binge drinking experienced a greater number of secondhand effects such as sleep disruption, verbal, physical, or sexual violence, and property damage. Features of the environment, such as residential setting, student affiliation, alcohol price and access, campus, local, and state alcohol policies, and campus prevailing drinking rates and demographic composition all impacted the initiation and perpetuation of binge drinking in college.
         The CAS data and supplemental surveys were also used to evaluate prevention efforts, including social norms marketing and the A Matter of Degree (AMOD) program, a program that was a demonstration initiative to reduce binge drinking and related harms among college students by changing campus and community environments. AMOD interventions targeted the easy accessibility, low price, and heavy marketing of alcohol prevalent in college communities.
         Use of the CAS data for evaluation of social norms marketing showed mixed results on its effectiveness. Administrators at approximately half (49%) of the colleges reported using social norms marketing as a prevention strategy to address student alcohol use. A CAS evaluation of colleges in which administrators reported that they used social norms marketing found that students attending these were more likely to report being exposed to social norms program messages and materials than were students at other campuses. However, no significant decreases in any measure of drinking were observed at colleges that employed a social norms approach compared with schools that did not, regardless of the length or intensity of the program. Conversely, a significant increase in any alcohol use was observed at these colleges. The CAS findings have been criticized for not directly examining the social marketing program quality and that administrator reports may not accurately reflect what was occurring on campus.
Conclusion:
The CAS research has raised awareness about the extent of college binge drinking and associated harms. The findings of the CAS point to the need for a broad approach that goes beyond individual students and targets alcohol environment at the college and the surrounding community. Prevention methods may be best adjusted to focus on the drinking behavior of the majority than to dramatically change the behavior of the heaviest drinker. This involves changing the way alcohol is made available, marketed, and served.
Implications for the field:
Understanding the patterns of drinking by different groups of students and in different settings can help researchers understand the factors that promote heavy drinking and identify potential intervention strategies to reduce alcohol consumption and, in turn, the harms that result from heavy consumption.

2007

Carey, K.B., Scott-Sheldon, L.A.J., Carey, M. P. & DeMartini, K.S. (2007). Individual-level interventions to reduce college student drinking: a meta-analytic review. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2469-2494. return to list

Objective:
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 62 published studies that evaluated 98 separate individual-level interventions designed to reduce alcohol use by college students. The qualified studies were published between 1985 to early 2007 and included 13,750 college student participants.
Method:
Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they (a) examined any educational, behavioral, or psychological alcohol intervention designed to reduce alcohol use and/or consequences; (b) sampled college or university students; (b) used a randomized controlled trial; (c) assessed drinking behavior (e.g., frequency or quantity); (d) provided sufficient information to calculate between-group effect size estimates; and (e) reported behavioral outcomes related to alcohol consumption and/or alcohol-related problems. Consistent with these criteria, studies were excluded if the intervention did not specifically focus on alcohol (e.g., comprehensive drug and alcohol intervention) or the interventions were not administered to individuals where the dose received could not be determined (i.e., campus-wide media or social norms campaigns). All studies were content coded for study descriptors, participant characteristics, and intervention components. Effect sizes were calculated for alcohol-related behaviors and problems.
The authors guided the meta-analysis with three decisions. First, they reported between-groups rather than within-group effects to recognize that college drinking fluctuates over the course of an academic semester as well as across years in college. The authors attempted to establish whether interventions influence college drinking beyond what would be expected from naturally-occurring change. Second, the authors presented effect sizes for multiple consumption variables and for alcohol-related problems to try and clarify the extent to which interventions produce changes on measures of consumption quantity, drinking frequency, indices of intoxication, and/or negative consequences resulting from drinking. Third, the authors evaluated effect sizes separately for follow-ups of different durations. This decision allowed conclusions regarding the maintenance or duration of intervention effects.
Results:
Three major findings about the efficacy of interventions for college student drinkers emerged from this study. First, individual level alcohol interventions for college drinkers reduce quantity and frequency of alcohol use by college students. Students who received risk reduction interventions subsequently engaged in less extreme drinking behavior than students in control conditions. Second, the alcohol risk reduction interventions succeeded in reducing alcohol-related problems reported by college drinkers. Reductions in problems vary by sample and intervention characteristics. Interventions were less successful in reducing problems (compared with controls) when they were targeted to heavy drinkers or other high-risk groups. Such students are likely to have heavy drinking peers and be embedded in more alcohol-involved social networks. Third, the contrast between students who receive interventions and those in control conditions (effect size magnitude) diminishes over time. Over follow-up intervals lasting up to six months, participants in risk reduction interventions drank significantly less relative to controls. Students receiving interventions also reported fewer alcohol-related problems over longer intervals. The number of significant effect sizes peaked at the short-term (4–13 weeks) and intermediate term (14–26 weeks) follow-ups. Between-groups effects on consumption (quantity, heavy drinking frequency, and peak BAC) were observed immediately post-intervention, but few persist beyond six months (an exception is frequency of drinking days at long-term follow-up). In contrast, reduction in alcohol-related problems takes longer to emerge and continues into long-term follow-ups. The overall pattern suggests that interventions reduce consumption within one month, but between-groups differences cease to be significant after six months.
Conclusions:
The findings demonstrate that alcohol risk reduction interventions of various forms reliably reduce quantity and frequency of drinking by college students. Specifically, interventions delivered to individuals rather than groups, and interventions that used motivational interviewing, provided feedback on expectancies or motives, normative comparisons, and included decisional balance exercises were more successful at reducing alcohol-related problems than a range of comparison conditions. In contrast, interventions that included skills training or expectancy challenge components were less successful at reducing alcohol-related problems, relative to control interventions.
Implications for the Field:
These findings have several implications for college drinking interventions development. First, future interventions should be designed to evaluate maintenance of effects. The typical study in this sample of 62 reported only one follow-up; future studies should evaluate maintenance of intervention effects over periods of 6–12 months. Second, investigators should explore ways of enhancing the efficacy of interventions to achieve larger between-group effect sizes. More explicit consideration of the developmental context and functions of drinking among adolescents and young adults will likely produce stronger effects. Third, researchers should use component analysis to reveal additive or interactive effects of intervention components and investigate participant characteristics that might moderate intervention response. Overall, these findings highlight the need to develop more efficacious interventions for heavy drinking students and those who belong to other at-risk groups such as Greeks and athletes.

Chawla, N., Neighbors, C., Lewis, M.A., Lee, M.A., & Larimer, M.A. (2007) Attitudes and perceived approval of drinking as mediators of the relationship between the importance of religion and alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68 (3), 410-418. return to list

Objective:
Previous research has consistently demonstrated that religiosity and personal importance of religion are associated with lower levels of alcohol use among both adolescents and college students. Although a number of different mechanisms have been proposed to account for this, few studies have empirically examined potential mediators of this relationship. Given the extensive literature on the impact of social norms on the drinking behavior of college students, the present study evaluates the role of perceived drinking norms as a mediator of the relationship between the importance of religion and alcohol use. Specifically, we examined both personal attitudes and perceived injunctive norms with regard to reference groups that vary in their proximity to students (i.e., close friends and typical college students).
Method:
Participants were 1,400 undergraduate students (60.6% women) who were assessed using self-report measures of alcohol consumption, importance of religion, attitudes, and perceived norms.
Results:
Results indicated that, consistent with the hypotheses, personal attitudes were the strongest mediator of the relationship between importance of religion and alcohol use, followed by the approval of close friends, and, to a lesser extent, the approval of typical college students.
Conclusions:
These findings suggest that importance of religion may have an indirect effect on alcohol use via personal attitudes and the perceived approval or disapproval of important others, and this relationship varies as a function of reference group. Implications for interventions that incorporate information on social norms are discussed.

Cialdini, R. (2007). Descriptive social norms as underappreciated sources of social control. Psychometrika, 72 (2), 263-268.

Abstract:
Böckenholt and van der Heijden's results regarding compliance with insurance regulations-that the enforcement activities of a regulatory agency were relatively unpredictive of compliance-are consistent with findings from other domains (e.g., tax adherence), where personal factors and informal social controls have been shown to play a more significant role. However, the specific form of informal social control investigated in Böckenholt and van der Heijden's study (the perceived approval/disapproval of friends and family) is not the only kind of informal social control that has proven effective in spurring compliance. Descriptive social norms, which involve perceptions not of what others approve but of what others actually do, also influence compliance decisions powerfully. Yet, the role of descriptive social norms in rule adherence is often underappreciated by governed and governors alike. The consequences of this relative lack of recognition are discussed within the arena of compliance with pro-environmental regulations and requests.

Fisher, T.D. (2007). Sex of experimenter and social norm effects on reports of sexual behavior in young men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36 (1), 89-100. return to list

Abstract:
Past studies indicate that men generally report having had more sexual experience and sexual partners than women, as well as an earlier age at first intercourse. At least some of these findings may partially reflect different responses to certain contextual variables in research. College students (266 men and 463 women) were asked to anonymously report their sexual attitudes and behavior after reading one of three fictitious statements about research findings regarding gender differences in sexuality. Some past findings were replicated, with men reporting somewhat more sexual experience and more permissive sexual attitudes than women. However, women reported a significantly younger age at first intercourse than did men. While there was no significant sex difference for total number of sexual partners, there was a significant interaction. With female research assistants (but not with male assistants), men reported more sexual partners when they were told that women are now more sexually permissive than men. This finding appeared to be largely a function of the men who scored higher on measures of hypermasculinity and ambivalent sexism. Women's reports were not significantly affected by the wording of the cover sheet, regardless of the sex of the research assistant. Even in this anonymous survey, the sex of the experimenter and the nature of the statement about research findings had an impact on the sex differences that were found. In light of these results, some previous conclusions about male-female differences in sexual behavior may need to be examined more closely.

Martens, M.P., Ferrier, A.G., & Cimini, M.D. (2007). Do protective behavioral strategies mediate the relationship between drinking motives and alcohol use in college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 106-114. return to list

Objective:
Heavy alcohol use among college students represents a public health problem on American college campuses. Use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS) has been shown to be related to reduced alcohol use and fewer alcohol-related problems, but the relationship of PBS to other alcohol-related constructs is unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the use of PBS mediated the relationship between positively and negatively reinforcing drinking motives and both alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.
Method:
Data were collected on 254 undergraduate students at a large, public university in the northeast region of the United States. Approximately one third (n = 90) of the participants were volunteers, whereas the remaining individuals enrolled in the study as an option for satisfying an alcohol-related campus judicial sanction.
Results:
Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that use of PBS partially mediated the relationships between positively reinforcing (i.e., social and enhancement) drinking motives and both alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Use of PBS did not mediate the relationship between negatively reinforcing (i.e., coping) drinking motives and alcohol use or alcohol-related problems. The theoretical models accounted for 26% of the variance in alcohol use and 24% of the variance in alcohol-related problems.
Conclusions:
This study suggests that PBS should be incorporated into theoretical models devoted to understanding college student drinking.

Park, H.S, & Smith, S.W. (2007) Distinctiveness and influence of subjective norms, personal descriptive and injunctive norms, and societal descriptive and injunctive norms on behavioral intent: a case of two behaviors critical to organ donation. Human Communication Research, 33 (2), 194-218. return to list

The effects of the attitudinal, normative, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) components of the theory of planned behavior and personal- and societal-level descriptive and injunctive norms were investigated with regard to their impact on the intent to enroll on a state organ-donor registry and the intent to engage in family discussion about organ donation. The results indicated that the 5 types of norms were distinct across the 2 behaviors. Different types of norms served as predictors and as moderators for the 2 behavioral intentions. The effects of attitudes toward each behavior and PBC were moderated by personal descriptive norms for behavioral intention to sign and by subjective norms for behavioral intention to talk with family.

2006

The American College Health Association. (2006). "American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) Spring 2004 Reference Group Data Report (Abridged)." Journal of American College Health, 54 (4), 201-211. return to list

Abstract:
Assessing and understanding the health needs and capacities of college students is paramount to creating healthy campus communities. The American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) is a survey instrument developed by the NCHA in 1998 to assist institutions of higher education in achieving this goal. The ACHA-NCHA contains approximately 300 questions assessing student health status and health problems, risk and protective behaviors, access to health information, impediments to academic performance, and perceived norms across a variety of content areas, including injury prevention; personal safety and violence; alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health; weight, nutrition, and exercise; and mental health. Twice a year, the ACHA compiles aggregate data from participating institutions in a reference group report for data comparison. Results from the Spring 2004 Reference Group (N = 47,202) are presented in this article."

Bohner, G., Siebler, F., & Schmelcher, J. (2006). Social norms and the likelihood of raping: perceived rape myth acceptance of others affects men's rape proclivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32 (3), 286-297. return to list

Excerpt [p. 293]:
"The current research further corroborates the role of rape myths as a factor facilitating sexual aggression. Taken together, our findings suggest that salient ingroup norms may be important determinants of the professed willingness to engage in sexually aggressive behavior. Our studies go beyond quasi-experimental and correlational work that had shown a close relationship between RMA [rape myth acceptance] and rape proclivity (RP) as well as our own previous experimental studies, which have shown that individual's RMA to causally affect RP. They demonstrate that salient information about others' RMA may cause differences in men's self-reported proclivity to exert sexual violence. Experiment 1 provides additional evidence on how this influence is mediated: It shows that the perceived RMA of others may increase or lower men's rape proclivity by temporarily increasing or lowering their own RMA. In Experiment 2, where own RMA was assessed before participants were exposed to RMA feedback, both independent and interactive effects of the two variables on self-reported rape proclivity were observed. Thus, our studies confirm that RMA may indeed function as a social norm as originally conceived by Burt (1980)."

Chia, S.C., & Gunther, A.C. (2006). How media contribute to misperceptions of social norms about sex. Mass Communication and Society, 9 (3), 301-320. return to list

Abstract:
In this study we examined how media contribute to college students' erroneous perceptions of peer norms and the consequence of such misperceptions. The data came from a survey of 312 college students. Results indicate that students believed that their peers were significantly more sexually permissive than was actually the case. The data suggested that they formed such erroneous impressions of peers based in part on their perceptions of media influence on peers. Some evidence also indicated that these misperceptions produced a significant impact on male college students, making them more likely to say they would engage in casual sexual activity and engage in it at an earlier stage in dating.

Cho, H. (2006). Readiness to change, norms, and self-efficacy among heavy-drinking college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (1), 131-138. return to list

Abstract:
Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between the readiness to change of college heavy drinkers and their normative and self-efficacy beliefs. Method: A multiple regression model analyzed the association in a heavy-drinker subsample (n = 306; men = 53.3%) drawn from a survey of a convenience sample of college students in two large-size midwestern universities. Results: Precontemplation was most strongly associated with the descriptive and injunctive norms of campus peers as well as friends. Contemplation was significantly associated with descriptive and injunctive norms of friends. The size of the association between readiness and normative beliefs decreased as the readiness progressed. Both precontemplation and contemplation were negatively associated with self-efficacy. Conclusions: Differences in readiness to change are related to different normative and self-efficacy beliefs to different degrees. Incorporating these differences could improve the effectiveness of future interventions. In particular, addressing friends' norms in addition to campus norms could increase self-efficacy and facilitate the behavioral change process of college heavy drinkers.

Haines, M.P., Barker, G., & Rice, R. (2006). The personal protective behaviors of college student drinkers: Evidence of indigenous protective norms. Journal of American College Health, 55 (2), 69-75. return to list

Objective:
The authors of this study sought to determine, given the prevalence of consumption and relative infrequency of harm, how most college students protect themselves from harm while drinking.
Method:
Researchers at a large, public university in the Midwest conducted a number of focus groups, intercepts, and personal interviews to discover what strategies students employ to reduce their risks when drinking. The students' responses generated a list of 10 potentially protective behaviors, the prevalence and efficacy of which were then assessed using that institution's own annual health-assessment survey. Survey items regarding these same 10 protective behaviors were subsequently included in the National College Health Assessment. The researchers then analyzed the aggregate national database of the NCHA to determine whether the use of one or more of these protective behaviors correlated with reduced harm. In addition, they examined whether the incidence of harm is reduced, even as the quantity of alcohol consumed, as measured by estimated blood alcohol concentration (BAC) increases. Researchers used the spring 2002 NCHA survey and included only those schools that used an approved random sampling technique and students who identified themselves as current drinkers. The resulting data set contained 19,852 student drinkers from 44 institutions. The NCHA survey asked respondents to answer questions about drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences.
Results:
An analysis of the NCHA data identified a cluster of personal protective behaviors that correlated with reduced risk when drinking. Further analysis revealed that it was normative for student drinkers to invoke protection. Nearly three-quarters of student drinkers regularly used at least one protective behavior and more than half of the students who used protective behaviors routinely employed two or more. There was a significant negative correlation between the personal protective behavior (PPB) used and the alcohol-related harm (r = -.347, p < .05). The clustering of behaviors was shown to have an additive effect in that the more protective behaviors a student employed, the less harm was incurred. Even students who drink less moderately (male students, younger students, fraternity and sorority students, and students with higher BAC) could reduce their likelihood of harm by using multiple protective behaviors. The data also revealed that student drinkers employ situational abstinence, with nearly 7 out of 10 students reporting that they sometimes or usually refrain from drinking alcohol when they socialize. The use of these protective behaviors is a strong predictor of safety and harm for college student drinkers. Data from the NCHA indicate that the consumption of alcohol is a highly normative behavior for college students that only infrequently entail negative consequences. The study also provides figures on the effect of personal protective behaviors on overall reported incidence of alcohol-related physical harm for gender, age, fraternity/sorority membership, and BAC.
Conclusions:
The authors state that the analyses demonstrate that college-student drinkers regularly employ a variety of protective behaviors to reduce their risk of injury. The researchers speculated that the use of normative protective behaviors may account for the relatively low incidence of alcohol-related harm among college students. Further research is needed to determine the relative predictive strength of these behaviors compared with factors commonly used to assess risk in this population, such as sex, age, fraternity or sorority affiliation, and quantity of alcohol consumed per occasion as measured by estimated BAC. The data also suggest that PPBs provide a useful measure for identifying students who demonstrate resistance to alcohol-related harm. These findings confirm previous research showing that the use of PPBs reduces risk for college-student drinkers and extend this work by identifying a cluster of protective behaviors that is most effective in reducing alcohol-related harm. The varying impact of these behaviors has important implications for the field of college health because it strongly suggests that certain protective behaviors (e.g., avoiding drinking games, pacing drinks to 1 or fewer per hour, keeping track of how many drinks you are having) merit more promotion than do others.
Implications for the Field:
The results of these analyses are important for those in college health who use media or provide counseling to model and promote effective safer drinking skills to students. Given the success that a number of researchers have reported using social norms interventions, the promotion of these normative protective behaviors as an alcohol-abuse-prevention strategy is warranted. Viewed in the context of health promotion, these findings provide a practical alternative to the abstinence-only approach so notoriously ineffective among this population. Future research is needed, however, to determine the extent to which specific protective behaviors can be made more prevalent using the social-norms approach or other health-promotion strategies.

LaBrie, J.W., Lamb, T.F., Pedersen, E.R., & Quinlan, T. (2006). A group motivational interviewing intervention reduces drinking and alcohol-related consequences in adjudicated college students. Journal of College Student Development, 47 (3), 267-280. return to list

Abstract:
This study examines the effectiveness of a single-session group motivational enhancement intervention with college students adjudicated for violation of alcohol policy. The intervention consisted of a Timeline Followback assessment of drinking, social norms re-education, decisional balance for behavior change, relapse prevention, expectancy challenge, and the generation of behavioral goals. All participants evidenced significant reductions in drinking from baseline through one and three month follow-up. Male participants and frequent binge drinkers showed the largest and most sustained reductions in drinking behavior. The results of this study provide tentative evidence for the effectiveness of group motivational enhancement interventions with adjudicated students.

Peterson, J.L., & Bakeman, R. (2006). Impact of beliefs about HIV treatment and peer condom norms on risky sexual behavior among gay and bisexual men. Journal of Community Psychology, 34 (1), 37-46. return to list

Abstract:
The association between perceptions about condom use among one's peers, beliefs about new HIV treatments, and HIV sexual risk behavior was examined in a large urban sample (n = 454) of gay and bisexual men in the Southeast. Results partially confirmed the hypothesis that men who endorsed new HIV treatment beliefs would report lower norms for condom use and higher HIV sexual risk behaviors than men who failed to endorse HIV treatment beliefs but with casual, and not main, partners. Moreover, results confirmed the hypothesis that the association between HIV treatment beliefs and unprotected sex would be partially mediated by peer condom norms. Results suggest social interventions are needed to promote condom norms in the social context of new HIV treatments.

Weiss J. W, & Garbanati J.A. (2006). Effects of acculturation and social norms on adolescent smoking among Asian-American subgroups. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 5 (2), 75-90. return to list

Abstract:
This study provides new information about how acculturation and perceived social norms affect adolescents smoking among four Asian-American subgroups. Results showed differences in smoking prevalence rates across subgroups, with Koreans having the highest rates of smoking, while Chinese have the lowest rates. In contrast to the large gender disparity in the ancestral countries, smoking rates were equal for Asian-American boys and girls. Acculturation was significantly associated with an increased risk for lifetime smoking for Asian-American girls, but not for boys. Perceived social norms regarding peer smoking were significantly associated with smoking behaviors for both genders and for all subgroups.

Wight, D., Plummer, M.L., Mshana, G., Wamoyi, J., Shigongo, Z.S., & Ross, D.A. (2006). Contradictory sexual norms and expectations for young people in rural northern Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine, 6, 987-997. return to list

Abstract:
There has been a long-running debate as to whether sexual cultures in sub-Saharan Africa are permissive or characterised by restrictive rules, rituals, and self-restraint. This paper, based on participant observation data, outlines the main features of a sexual culture in rural northern Tanzania and highlights both permissive and restrictive norms and expectations for young people. It also illustrates how sexual beliefs are socially constructed and subject to social change. Sexual activity is constrained by clear norms of school pupil abstinence, female sexual respectability and taboos around the discussion of sex. However, these norms are incompatible with several widely held expectations: that sexual activity is inevitable unless prevented, sex is a female resource to be exploited, restrictions on sexual activity are relaxed at festivals, and masculine esteem is boosted through sexual experience. Differential commitment to these norms and expectations reflects conflicts between generations and genders. Young people appear to manage the contradictions in these norms by concealing their sexual relationships. This almost certainly contributes to their short duration and the high levels of partner change, since relationships are not reinforced through social recognition and there is little scope to develop intimacy through non-sexual contacts.

2005

Abstract:
Assessing and understanding the health needs and capacities of college students is paramount to creating healthy campus communities. The American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) is a survey instrument developed by the American College Health Association (ACHA) in 1998 to assist institutions of higher education in achieving this goal. The ACHA-NCHA contains approximately 300 questions assessing student health status and health problems, risk and protective behaviors, access to health information, impediments to academic performance, and perceived norms across a variety of content areas, including injury prevention; personal safety and violence; alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health; weight, nutrition, and exercise; and mental health. Twice a year, ACHA compiles aggregate data from institutions using the ACHA-NCHA to provide a reference group for data comparison. A portion of the data from the Spring 2003 Reference Group is provided in this article for use by professionals, researchers, institutions, departments, and organizations invested in advancing the health of college students.

Bernburg, J.G. (2005). Violent values, conduct norms, and youth aggression: A multilevel study in Iceland. The Sociological Quarterly, 46, 457-478. return to list

Abstract:
The subculture of violence approach suggests that group adherence to values and norms that encourage violence influence aggressive behavior through two analytically separate processes: (1) internalization of values encouraging violence, and (2) social control stemming from others' adherence to conduct norms. While some attention has been paid to the former process, the research has rarely addressed the latter. We examine the individual-level and contextual effects of values that encourage violence and perceived conduct norms on youth aggression in Iceland. The results indicate that group adherence to violent values and norms influences aggression through social control as well as internalization (socialization), lending cross-cultural support to the subculture of violence perspective.

Braxton, J. & Caboni, T. (2005). Using student norms to create positive learning environments. About Campus, 9 (6), 2-7. return to list

Excerpt:
"College and university administrators, faculty, and staff members often invest considerable time and effort in the formulation and modification of institutional policies and practices designed to foster campus environments favorable to student learning. Such policies and practices frequently offer much hope. However, the success or failure of such policies and practices depends on student acceptance and compliance. Knowledge and understanding of the norms espoused by student peer groups thus provide powerful tools for the formulation of such policies and practices."

Dworkin, J. (2005). Risk taking as developmentally appropriate experimentation for college students. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20 (2), 219-241. return to list

Abstract:
Researchers have suggested that experimentation may be a necessary, constructive component of identity formation. However, these researchers have also noted the paradox of risk taking: an individual may experience both positive and negative precursors and consequences of risk taking. The present investigation used qualitative methods to explore the personal meaning of experimentation behaviors and of this paradox to college students. A stratified sample of 12 community college students (6 female) and 20 university students (10 female) was interviewed. Data were analyzed using grounded theory methods. Students described a deliberate and functional process of experimenting with a variety of risk behaviors. This included articulating the ways in which college culture promotes participation in risk behaviors as developmentally appropriate experimentation.

Eisenberg, M.E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., & Perry , C. (2005). The role of social norms and friends' influences on unhealthy weight-control behaviors among adolescent girls. Social Science & Medicine, 60 (6), 1165-1173. return to list

Abstract:
Dieting is common among adolescent girls and may place them at risk of using unhealthy weight-control behaviors (UWCBs), such as self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diet pills, or fasting. Research has suggested that social factors, including friends and broader cultural norms, may be associated with UWCBs. The present study examines the relationship between the school-wide prevalence of current weight loss efforts among adolescent girls, friends' dieting behavior, and UWCBs, and investigates differences in these associations across weight categories. Survey data were collected in 31 middle and high schools in ethnically and socio-economically diverse communities in Minnesota, USA. The response rate was 81.5%. Rates of UWCBs were compared across the spectrum of prevalence of trying to lose weight and friends' involvement with dieting, using ?2 analysis and multivariate logistic regression, controlling for demographic factors and clustering by school. Girls with higher body mass index (BMI) were more likely to engage in UWCBs than those of lower BMI. Multivariate models indicated that friends' dieting behavior was significantly associated with UWCBs for average weight girls (OR=1.57, CI=1.40-1.77) and moderately overweight girls (OR=1.47, CI=1.19-1.82). The school-wide prevalence of trying to lose weight was significantly, albeit modestly, related to UWCBs for average weight girls (15th-85th percentile; OR=1.17, CI=1.01-1.36), and marginally associated for modestly overweight girls (85th-95th percentile; OR=1.21, CI=.97-1.50), even after controlling for friends' dieting behaviors. The social influences examined here were not associated with UWCBs among underweight (<15th percentile) or overweight (>95th percentile) girls. Findings suggest that social norms, particularly from within one's peer group, but also at the larger school level may influence UWCBs, particularly for average weight girls. Implications for school-based interventions to reduce UWCBs are discussed.

Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: a Framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399-419. return to list

Abstract:
Adolescent resilience research differs from risk research by focusing on the assets and resources that enable some adolescents to overcome the negative effects of risk exposure. We discuss three models of resilience (the compensatory, protective, and challenge models) and describe how resilience differs from related concepts. We describe issues and limitations related to resilience and provide an overview of recent resilience research related to adolescent substance abuse, violent behavior, and sexual risk behavior. We then discuss implications that resilience research has for intervention and describe some resilience-based interventions.

Haines, M. (2005). Habituation and Social Norms. The Report on Social Norms, 4 (7)1-8. (Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) return to list

Excerpt:
"Anyone experienced with applying social marketing concepts to correct misperceived social norms knows that delivering credible true norm messages consistently and frequently is a key to success. Is it possible to overdo the marketing, overdose our audience, turn them against us? The answer is "yes" and when we do that it is called habituation by professional advertisers. Habituation can reduce the effectiveness of a social norms campaign or even cause it to fail." The article describes the stages and causes of habituation, as well as solutions to it.

Lapinski, M.K., & Rimal, R.N. (2005). An explication of social norms. Communication Theory, 15 (2), 127-147. return to list

Abstract:
This article identifies four factors for consideration in norms-based research to enhance predictive ability of theoretical models. First, it makes the distinction between perceived and collective norms and between descriptive and injunctive norms. Second, the article addresses the role of important moderators in the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors, including outcome expectations, group identity, and ego involvement. Third, it discusses the role of both interpersonal and mass communication in normative influences. Lastly, it outlines behavioral attributes that determine susceptibility to normative influences, including behavioral ambiguity and the public or private nature of behavior.

Lederman. L. and Stewart, L. (2005). Changing The Culture Of College Drinking: A Socially Situated Health Communication Campaign. Hampton Press. return to list

Included in this book are chapters by Alan Berkowitz (reviewing the history of social norms Theory), Patricia Fabiano (describing the work done at WWU with a small group approach incorporating social norms) and by Linda Jeffrey and Pam Negro of Rowan University (summarizing their work with a state-wide social norms project). The book targets a new audience for social norms work: the discipline of communication, where many who study persuasion theory and health communication may now be introduced to the Socially Situated Experiential Learning approach used by Lederman and Stewart at Rutgers University: an approach that relies upon and acknowledges the role of social norms and misperceptions.

Linnan, L., LaMontagne, A.D., Stoddard, A., Emmons, K.M., & Sorensen, G. (2005). Norms and their relationship to behavior in worksite settings: An application of the Jackson Return Potential model. American Journal of Health Behavior, 29 (3), 258-268. return to list

Objectives:
To measure health norms and assess their influence on behavior among 2541 employees in 16 manufacturing worksites using an adapted Jackson's Return Potential Model (RPM).
Methods:
Worksite-level norm intensity, crystallization, and normative power were calculated for several behaviors; linear regression analyses tested whether normative power was related to each health behavior.
Results:
Norms about safe work practices and smoking were most intense; norms about safe work practices were most crystallized. Safe work practices and smoking held the highest normative power; healthy eating held the least normative power.
Conclusions:
Comparing norm characteristics across health behaviors leads to important leverage points for intervening to influence norms and improve worker health.

Macauly, A.P., Griffin, K.W., Gronewold, E., Williams, C., & Botvin, G.J. (2005). Parenting Practices and adolescent drug-related knowledge, attitudes, norms and behavior. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 49 (2), 67-83. return to list

Abstract:
The current study explored the relationships between parenting practices and adolescent drug use. Suburban middle school students (N=2129) completed surveys that included measures of perceived parental monitoring, discipline and setting an anti-drug message as well as measures of drug-related knowledge, attitudes, and peer norms. Results indicated that effective parenting practices had a direct protective effect in terms of adolescent drug use and that the protective effect of parenting practices remained significant after including the effects of parenting on adolescent drug-related knowledge, attitudes, and perceived norms in a structural equation model. These findings suggest that effective parenting practices have a robust protective effect on youth drug use via multiple pathways that extend beyond parenting effects on the most proximal predictors of adolescent drug use.

Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Durkin, K., and Griffiths, J. (2005). Group norms, threat, and Children's racial prejudice. Child Development, 76(3):652-663. return to list

To assess predictions from social identity development theory (SIDT; Nesdale, 2004) concerning children's ethnic/racial prejudice, 197 Anglo-Australian children ages 7 or 9 years participated in a minimal group study as a member of a team that had a norm of inclusion or exclusion. The team was threatened or not threatened by an out-group that was of the same or different race. Consistent with SIDT, prejudice was greater when the ingroup had a norm of exclusion and there was threat from the out-group. Norms and threat also interacted with participant age to influence ethnic attitudes, although prejudice was greatest when the in-group had an exclusion norm and there was out-group threat. The implications of the findings for SIDT are discussed.

Ott, C.H., Cashin, S., & Altekruse, M. (2005). Development and validation of the college tobacco survey. Journal of American College Health, 53 (5), 231-238. return to list

Abstract:
The authors report on the development and assessment of an instrument to measure baseline campus cigarette use and outcomes from prevention programs, including those using a social norms approach combined with environmental policy change. They administered the 37-item College Tobacco Survey (CTS) to a convenience sample of 1,279 college students in freshmen-level classes at a large urban university. Factor analysis of 15 belief items revealed 3 factors: Peer Environment, Personal Effects, and Campus Policy Endorsement. The findings support the survey's reliability and validity. The authors discuss potential uses of the survey in terms of social norms and environmental prevention programs.

Rice, R., & Hancock, L. (2005). The Mall Intercept: A Social Norms Marketing Research Tool. The Report on Social Norms, 4 (7), 4-7. (Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) return to list

Excerpt:
"The mall intercept is an indispensable tool for conducting timely and effective process or monitoring research. Because it is relatively economical and can be easily adapted to investigate both ongoing and emergent questions, the mall intercept can generate a wealth of both qualitative and quantitative data about various aspects of project implementation. In addition, a wide variety of individuals can be trained to conduct intercepts, thus providing an important educational opportunity for peer educators, students in public and community health, marketing students, etc. In short, social norms projects have abundant reasons to use the mall intercept. By doing so, they can effectively bolster the comprehension, reach, and recall of their normative messages."

Russell, C., Clapp, J., & DeJong, W. (2005). Done 4: Analysis of a failed social norms marketing campaign. Health Communication, 17 (1), 57-65. return to list

Abstract:
College students commonly believe their peers engage in higher levels of dangerous drinking than is actually the case. Social norms marketing campaigns attempt to correct these misperceptions, decrease the perceived normative pressure to drink, and thereby drive down high-risk alcohol consumption. In this case study, we critically examined "Done 4," an unsuccessful social norms marketing campaign conducted as part of a comprehensive prevention trial at a large urban university. As part of this analysis, undergraduate marketing students were shown the principal advertisement used in the campaign and asked to complete an advertising analysis questionnaire. The results of this case study suggest that the advertisement was poorly constructed, which decreased its effectiveness and led to confusion about the social norms message. We discuss implications of these findings for future prevention campaigns and new research.

Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A., & McGeorge, P. (2005). Social norms and self-presentation: Children's implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76 (2), 451-466. return to list

Two studies examined whether social norms and children's concern for self-presentation affect their intergroup attitudes. Study 1 examined racial intergroup attitudes and normative beliefs among children aged 6 to 16 years (n5155). Accountability (i.e., public self-focus) was experimentally manipulated, and intergroup attitudes were assessed using explicit and implicit measures. Study 2 (n5134) replicated Study 1, focusing on national intergroup attitudes. Both studies showed that children below 10 years old were externally motivated to inhibit their in-group bias under high public self-focus. Older children were internally motivated to suppress their bias as they showed implicit but not explicit bias. Study 1, in contrast to Study 2, showed that children with low norm internalization suppressed their out-group prejudice under high public self-focus.

Sanchez, D.T., Crocker, J., & Boike, K.R. (2005). Doing gender in the bedroom: Investing in gender norms and the sexual experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31 (10), 1445-1455. return to list

People often believe that they must be consistent with gender norms to obtain others' approval. The authors believe people who invest in gender norms tend to base self-esteem on others' approval, which undermines their sexual autonomy and ultimately diminishes their sexual satisfaction in intimate relationships. A survey of 309 sexually active college students examined whether placing importance on conforming to gender norms undermines sexual relationships because of its link to basing self-worth on others' approval and decreased sexual autonomy. Using structural equation modeling, the authors found that valuing gender conformity (but not avoiding gender deviance) negatively affects sexual pleasure for both men and women through increased contingency on others' approval and restricted sexual autonomy. The model fit the data for both men and women.

Schneider,S., Towvim, L.G., & DeJong, W. (2005). The social norms marketing research project: Results for Study 1. The Report on Social Norms, 4 (5). return to list

This study found "slight decreases or modest increases in alcohol consumption at the schools randomly assigned to conduct a social norms marketing campaign, compared to fairly substantial increases at the control group schools. In sum, the social norms marketing campaigns conducted by the experimental schools appear to have provided a protective effect against the increases in alcohol consumption shown by the control group."

Sorensen, S.B., & Taylor, C.A. (2005). Female aggression toward male intimate oartners: An examination of social norms in a community-based sample. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 78-96. return to list

Abstract:
We investigated the effect of assailant gender on injunctive social norms (i.e., beliefs about what ought to happen) regarding violence toward an intimate heterosexual partner. In a random-digit-dialed survey conducted in four languages, 3,769 community-residing adults were presented with five vignettes in which we experimentally manipulated characteristics using multivariate logistic regressions. Judgments about women's violence against male intimates (vs. men's violence against female intimates) were less harsh and took contextual factors more fully into account. The type of violence and the presence of a weapon played a central rol in respondent judments. Respondent demographic characteristics were largely unrelated to their judgments.

Taylor, C. A., & Sorensen, S.B. (2005). Community-based norms about intimate partner violence: Putting attributions of fault and responsibility into context. Sex Roles, 53 (7/8), 573-589. return to list

Abstract:
Fault and responsibility are key concepts in understanding how victims and assailants are, or are not, held accountable to society. We used fractional factorial vignette design with a community-residing sample of 3,679 adults to examine judgments about intimate partner violence (IPV). Although fault, or causal responsibility, was assigned most often to assailants (69%), respondents assigned solution responsibility most often to both persons (52%) or to the victim alone (31%): interpersonal communication for couples (38%) and self-protective actions for victims (i.e., engaging formal authorities [12%] and/or leaving the assailant [11%]) were the most frequent suggestions. Potential injury to the victim and gender/relationship-based norms had the greatest impact on judgments.

Wenzel, M. (2005). Motivation or rationalisation? Causal relations between ethics, norms and tax compliance. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26, 491-508. return to list

Abstract:
This study investigated whether tax ethics and social norms constitute true motivations for tax compliance, or whether they are mere rationalisations of self-interested behaviour. Cross-lagged panel analyses were applied to data from a two-wave survey with 1161 Australian citizens. First, results showed that tax ethics causally affected tax compliance and were affected by levels of compliance. Second, perceived social norms causally affected personally held tax ethics, but only for respondents who identified strongly with the respective group. At the same time, personal ethics were also projected onto the perceived normative beliefs of the social group. Third, perceived norms causally affected tax compliance, partly mediated by their effect on personal ethics. Conversely, tax compliance also affected the perception of norms. Overall, the study provides evidence for a complex role of individual ethics and social norms in tax-paying behaviour.

Werner, N.E., & Nixon, C.L. (2005). Normative beliefs and relational aggression: An investigation of the cognitive bases of adolescent aggressive behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34 (3),229-243. return to list

Abstract:
The relations between normative beliefs about different forms of aggression and corresponding aggressive behaviors were investigated in 2 studies of adolescents. In Study 1, we revised an instrument designed to assess normative beliefs about aggression to include beliefs about the acceptability of relational aggression, and we examined the psychometric properties of the instrument. In Studies 1 and 2, the unique associations of normative beliefs about relational and physical aggression with self-reported relational and physical aggression were examined. Findings across both studies revealed that beliefs-behavior associations were specific to aggression forms. In other words, beliefs about relational aggression were uniquely associated with engagement in relationally aggressive acts, whereas beliefs about physical aggression, but not relational aggression, contributed unique information about adolescents' level of physical aggression. No gender effects were found. Results are discussed with a social-cognitive framework, and implications are explored for future prevention and intervention efforts to reduce aggressive behaviors.

West, S.L., & Graham, C.W. (2005). A survey of substance abuse prevention efforts at Virginia's colleges and universities. Journal of American College Health, 54(3), 185-191. return to list

Abstract:
The extremes of college student substance use and the negative consequences students face as a result of such use are of great public health concern. Although a multitude of campus-based substance abuse prevention efforts have appeared in the literature, a clear picture of the programs and policies currently at use at college and universities is not readily available. This research was undertaken to detail both the efforts aimed at general student samples and those targeting at-risk (e.g., Greeks, student athletes) and historically underserved student groups at colleges and universities in the Commonwealth of Virginia. While a variety of efforts were being made, there was a reliance on program orientations with limited scientific support. Four-year institutions used a wider array of outlets for their prevention messages. Targeted programs for at-risk groups were common but were largely unavailable specifically for ethnic minority students and students with disabilities.

2004

Albarracin, D., Kumkale, G.T., & Johnson, B.T. (2004). Influences of social power and normative support on condom use decisions: A research synthesis. AIDS Care, 16 (6), 700-723. return to list

Abstract:
A meta-analysis of 58 studies involving 30,270 participants examined how study population and methodological characteristics influence the associations among norms, control perceptions, attitudes, intentions and behavior in the area of condom use. Findings indicated that control perceptions generally correlated more strongly among members of societal groups that lack power, including female, younger individuals, ethic minorities and people with lower educational levels. Furthermore, norms generally had stronger influences among younger individuals and among people who have greater access to informational social support, including males, ethnic majorities and people with higher levels of education. These findings are discussed in the context of HIV prevention.

Alexander, E.N. & Bowen, A. M. (2004). Excessive drinking in college: Behavioral outcome, not binge, as a basis for prevention. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1199-1205. return to list

Excerpt:
"Perhaps the definition of excessive use or binge drinking hinders prevention efforts. The term binge may encapsulate such a broad array of drinking behaviors and outcomes that students fail to identify specific behaviors to change.Emphasizing negative outcomes may have minimal utility because they are frequently delayed. Positive experiences are more immediate and may provide an avenue of prevention programming. Interventions that focus on increased awareness of positive outcomes may improve expectations for light drinking.Emphasizing that people experience more fun when they increase the time spent in a social situation rather than increase the amount of alcohol consumed, educators can provide alternative reasons for students as to why they experience positive outcomes, rather than focusing only on drinking behaviors."

Beirness, D.J., Foss, R.D., & Vogel-Sprott. M. (2004). Drinking on campus: Self-reports and breath tests. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 600-604. return to list

Abstract (excerpt):
The present survey examines the degree to which [the] 2-week 5+/4+ drink criterion characterizes a student's pattern of alcohol use, and whether the 5+/4+ drink criterion for a drinking occasion is a valid indicator of high blood alcohol concentration (BAC). METHOD: Students (N=856, 70% male) were interviewed as the returned home between 10PM and 3AM. Students reported their drinking of the past 2 weeks and of the night they were interviewed, then provided breath samples to determine their BAC. RESULTS: Among the students in the sample classified as "heavy" drinkers on the basis of self-reports, 49% had zero BAC on the night they were interviewed. Those who reported consuming 5+/4+ drinks the evening of the interview had a mean BAC <0.05%. Very high BACs (i.e., at or above 0.15%) were rare (1.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Self-reports of consuming 5+/4+ drinks on at least one occasion during the previous 2 weeks did not reliably identify a pattern of heavy drinking. Moreover, reports of 5+/4+ drinks on an occasion were not necessarily associated with high BACs.

[Note: Extensive information about the use of data from another BAC study in an effective social norms campaign conducted at the University of North Carolina is available on the web site of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/ReduceCollege/toc.htm This publication by Robert Foss, L. Marchetti, and K. Holladay is entitled: "Development and Evaluation of a Comprehensive Program to Reduce Drinking and Impaired Driving Among College Students: Final Report."]

Brener N.D, Eaton D.K., Lowry R., & McManus T. (2004). The association between weight perception and BMI among high school students. Obesity Research, 12 (11), 1866-1874. return to list

Abstract:
To assess the association between weight perception and BMI among a large, diverse sample of adolescents. This study used both measured and self-reported height and weight to calculate BMI. A convenience sample of students (n = 2032) in grades 9 through 12 completed a questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, self-reported height and weight, and body weight perception. These students were then weighed and had their height measured using a standard protocol.
Results:
Using BMI calculated from measured height and weight, 1.5% of students were classified as underweight or at risk for underweight, 51.2% of students were normal weight, and 47.4% were overweight or at risk for overweight. Among this same sample of students, however, 34.8% perceived themselves as underweight, 42.9% perceived themselves as about the right weight, and 22.3% perceived themselves as overweight. Even when using BMI calculated from self-reported height and weight, >20% of students who were overweight or at risk for overweight perceived themselves as underweight.
Discussion:
Because perception of overweight is a key determinant of adolescent nutritional habits and weight management, many students who are overweight or at risk for overweight but who do not perceive themselves as such are unlikely to engage in weight control practices. Increasing awareness of medical definitions of overweight might improve accuracy of weight perceptions and lead to healthier eating and increased physical activity.

Christensen, P. N., Rothgerber, H., Wood, W., & Matz, D.C. (2004). Social norms and identity relevance: A motivational approach to normative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30 (10), 1295-1309. return to list

Two studies demonstrated that greater identification with a group was associated with more positive emotions for members who conformed with versus violated the group's norms. These effects were found with injunctive norms, which specify what members should do or what they ideally would do, but emerged less consistently with descriptive norms, which specify what members typically do. Descriptive norms affected emotional responses when they acquired identity-relevance by differentiating an important ingroup from a rival outgroup. For these descriptive norms, much like injunctive norms, greater identification yielded more positive emotions following conformity than violation. The authors suggest that positive emotions and selfevaluations underlie conformity with the norms of self-defining.

Dalgety, J., & Coll, R. K. (2004). The influence of normative beliefs on students' enrollment choices. Research in Science & Technological Education, 22 (1), 59-80. return to list

Peers, family, mentors and the media may influence students' attitudes towards chemistry and their intention to enrol in tertiary chemistry course. In this paper we report on an investigation of the perceptions students hold about their associates' attitudes toward chemistry and chemists. Data were gathered from 37 tertiary chemistry students, for whom chemistry had differing roles in their degree. The data suggest that although many of the students' associates subscribe to stereotypical images of chemistry and chemists, students choices of emrolment are predominantly based on their own previous experiences.

Eaton, D.K., Lowry, R., Brener, N.D., Grunbaum, J., & Kann, L. (2004). Passive versus active parental permission in school-based research: Does the type of permission affect prevalence estimates of risk behaviors? Evaluation Review, 28 (6), 564-577. return to list

Abstract:
This study investigates whether the type of parental permission affects prevalence estimates for risk behaviors from the 2001 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Participants were 13,195 students from 143 schools, of which 65% used passive permission and 35% active permission. Student participation rates were 86.7% in passive permission schools and 77.3% in active permission schools. For 24 of 26 behaviors tested, no significant differences were seen in the prevalence of risk behavior by type of parental permission. As long as high response rates are obtained, type of parental permission does not affect prevalence estimates for risk behaviors that are based on self-report.

Griffin, K.W., Botvin, G.J., Nichols, T.R., & Scheier, L.M. (2004). Low perceived chances for success in life and binge drinking among inner-city minority youth. Journal of Adolescent Health 34, 501-507. return to list

Purpose:
To examine the relationship between low perceived chances for success in life and binge drinking in a sample of economically disadvantaged, predominantly minority, urban adolescents.
Methods:
A sample of predominantly black and Hispanic students (N=774) from 13 inner city schools completed confidential questionnaires in the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades. Eight items measured students' estimation of achieving certain adaptive life goals. Students who reported that they typically drink five or more drinks per drinking occasion were identified as binge drinkers.
Results:
Chi-square proportional analyses indicated that rates of binge drinking increased and perceived life chances decreased for both boys and girls from the 7th to the 9th grade. A cross-lagged path analytic model revealed that higher perceived life chances in the 7th grade predicted less binge drinking in the 8th grade, wheras binge drinking in the 8th grade predicted lower perceived life chances in the 9th grade, controlling for change over time in both variables.
Conclusions:
Low perceived chances of success in life appear to play a roll in the initiation and escalation of binge drinking during early adolescence, with reciprocal relationship between the two factors developing over time.

Kneeshaw, K., Vaske, J.J., Bright, A.D., & Absher, J.D. (2004). Acceptability Norms toward Fire Management in Three National Forests. Environment and Behavior, 36 (4), 592-612. return to list

Excerpt:
"Overall, this study has demonstrated how the normative approach can be used to identify forest users' acceptance of fire management actions across a variety of fire scenarios and three national forests. Extending this research to other stakeholder groups, national forests, and fire scenario factors would create amore holistic prediction of the acceptability of fire management actions. Such an expansion would increase managers'confidence in choosing the most acceptable management action and potentially help reduce conflict associated with fire management policies. Understanding normative beliefs about acceptable management actions, as well as the factors influencing these normative beliefs, facilitates more effective communication and education about fire management."

Martens, M.P., Taylor, K.K., Damann, K.M., Page, L.C., Mowry, E.S., & Cimini, M.D. (2004). Protective behavioral strategies when drinking alcohol and their relationship to negative alcohol-related consequences in college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 390-393. return to list

Abstract:
Prior research has examined a number of individual characteristics (e.g., gender, family connectedness) that protect individuals from engaging in heavy drinking and experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences, but less is known about specific behavioral strategies that might also serve as protective factors. In this study, 556 undergraduate students completed the National College Health Assessment and answered questions regarding the use of specific protective behavioral strategies (PBS), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related consequences. Results indicated that less frequent use of PBS was related to a greater likelihood of experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences, even after accounting for the effects of gender and alcohol consumption. These results suggest that PBS may be an important component of both prevention and treatment programs for college students.

Randolph, W., & Viswanath, K. (2004). Lessons learned from public health mass media campaigns: Marketing health in a crowded media world. Annual Review of Public Health, 25, 419-37. return to list

Abstract:
Every year, new public health mass media campaigns are launched attempting to change health behavior and improve health outcomes. These campaigns enter a crowded media environment filled with messages from competing sources. Public health practitioners have to capture not only the attention of the public amid such competition, but also motivate them to change health behaviors that are often entrenched or to initiate habits that may be new or difficult. In what ways are public health mass media campaigns now attempting to succeed in a world crowded with media messages from a myriad of sources? What are the conditions that are necessary for a media campaign to successfully alter health behaviors and alter outcomes in the long term? To what extent can the successes and failures of previous campaigns be useful in teaching important lessons to those planning campaigns in the future? In this chapter we attempt to answer these questions, drawing from recent literature on public health mass media campaigns.

Turner, J.C., Bauerle, J. & Shu, J. (2004). Estimated blood alcohol concentration correlation with self-reported negative consequences among college students using alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65 (6), 741-749. return to list

Abstract:
The estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) has the potential for being a useful index of alcohol induced intoxication and impairment. This study investigates the association of the eBAC with negative consequences associated with alcohol use. Self-reported negative consequences were assessed using a stratified random sampling of 4708 undergraduate students at a public university with a total enrollment of 12,550. Survey questions permitted the calculation. Levels of eBAC were correlated with demographic characteristics and self-reported negative consequences. The effectiveness of the eBAC in predicting negative consequences was compared to drinks per week and consuming at or above the heavy episodic drinking level by calculating receiver operator characteristic values (ROC) and incremental validity by performing multiple logistic regressions. The results of reporting a higher level of eBAC were significantly elevated for males, underage classmen, and members of Greek organizations. The odds of reporting a negative consequence were highly associated with each incremental increase in the eBAC level. The performance of the eBAC was not significantly different than drinks per week and the heavy episodic drinking index in correlating with negative consequences.
Conclusion:
As an index of alcohol consumption, the level of "typical eBAC is correlated with seventeen self-reported social and health consequences. There are potential advantages of using the eBAC index in assessing alcohol use among college drinkers.

Valde, K.S., & Fitch, K.L (2004). Desire and sacrifice: Seeking compliance in designated driver talk. Western Journal of Communication, 68 (2), 121-150. return to list

Abstract:
Media Campaigns introduced the term designated driver to United States discourse in an effort to persuade people not to drink and drive. This study explores implementation of the media campaign's objective in social interactions. We describe cultural premises related to drinking and driving, facework issues in designated driver talk, and relational resources relevant to designating a driver. Although people routinely attempt to designate a driver, interpretations of the term often diverge from the goal of eliminating drunk driving. The findings emphasize that designated driver talk is constructed through interaction sequences, and that problematic issues around face threats and cultural assumptions about drinking and driving should be addressed.

2003 & prior

Brener, N.D., Billy, J.O., & Grady, W.R. (2003). Assessment of factors affecting the validity of self-reported health-risk behavior among adolescents: Evidence from the scientific literature. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33, 436-457. return to list

Abstract:
We reviewed the existing empirical literature to assess cognitive and situational factors that may affect the validity of adolescents' self-reports of alcohol and other drug use, tobacco use, behaviors related to unintentional injuries and violence, dietary behaviors, physical activity, and sexual behavior. Specifically, we searched for peer-reviewed journal articles published in 1980 or later that examined the factors affecting self-report of the six categories of behavior listed above. We also search for studies describing objective measures for each behavior. Self-reports of each of six types of health-risk behaviors are affected by both cognitive and situational factors.These factors, however, do not threaten the validity of each type of behavior equally. The importance of assessing health-risk behaviors as part of research activities involving adolescents necessitates the use of self-report measures. Researchers should familiarize themselves with the threats to validity inherent in this type of assessment and design research that minimizes these threats as much as possible.

Latkin, C.A., Forman, V., Knowlton, A., & Sherman, S. (2003). Norms, social networks, and HIV-related risk behaviors among urban disadvantaged drug users. Social Science and Medicine, 56 (3), 465-476. return to list

Abstract:
Altering norms may be an important approach to introducing and sustaining health protective behavior change. This study sought to examine the relationship between condom use, condom norms, and social network characteristics among a sample of economically impoverished individuals at risk for acquiring and transmitting HIV. Participants were 1051 individuals from a drug-using community in the USA. Eighty percent were current drug users; 17% were HIV seropositive. Reported condom use was strongly associated with peer norms about condom use (friends talking about condoms, encouraging condom use, and using condoms). Women were less likely than men to report that their friends used condoms. Injection drug use was negatively associated with peer norms about condom use, while church attendance and network characteristics were positively associated with condom-promoting norms. The size of the health advice and the financial support networks was most positively related to condom norms. Network methodology may aid in the identification of specific ties that promote condom use norms in a population. The findings of this study may have implications for norm change interventions among disadvantaged communities at high risk for HIV/AIDS.

Peters, R.J., Kelder, S.H., Markham, C.M., Yacoubian, G.S., Peters, L.A., Ellis, A. (2003). Beliefs and social norms about codeine and promethazine hydrochloride cough syrup (CPHCS) onset and perceived addiction among urban Houstonian adolescents: An addiction trend in the city of lean. Journal of Drug Education, 33 (4), 415-425. return to list

Abstract:
In the current study, we used a qualitative approach to investigate relevant beliefs and norms associated with codeine and promethazine hydrochloride cough syrup (CPHCS) consumption, initiation, and perceived addiction among 48 alternative school students who identified themselves as current CPHCS users. In general, both boys and girls believed the CPHCS addiction started during an individual's initial consumption. A majority of both groups reported that their second CPHCS event was initiated during the same or next day after their first event. Our findings suggest that friends and an innovative form of hip-hop music called "screw" are strong reinforcers of CPHCS use.

Wagenaar, A.C. & Toomey, T.L. (2002). Effects of minimum drinking age laws: Review and analyses of the literature from 1960 to 2000. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 206-225. return to list

Objective:
There has long been a debate regarding the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) and whether it is really effective in reducing alcohol-related problems. This study critically reviewed and summarized all studies available in peer-reviewed published literature over the past four decades that evaluated the effects of public policies establishing a legal minimum age for purchase and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages.
Method:
The authors conducted comprehensive searchers of four databases to identify 132 empirical studies of the MLDA published from 1960 to 1999. The selected databases included MEDLINE (1966-1999), Current Contents (1994-1999), Social Science Abstracts (1983-1999), and ETOH- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism’s alcohol and alcohol problems science database (1960-1999). The authors looked for sampling design, study design, and presence or absence or comparison group to determine methodological quality.
Results:
The authors identified 241 empirical analyses of the MLDA; 56% of the analyses met the authors’ criteria for high methodological quality. There were 48 published studies that assessed the effects of changes in the legal minimum drinking age on indicators of alcohol consumption. Of the 78 different alcohol consumption outcome measures that were analyzed, 27 (35%) found a statistically significant inverse relationship between the legal drinking age and alcohol consumption. That is, as the legal age was lowered, drinking increased, and as the legal age was raised, drinking decreased. Only five found a positive relationship. Of all analyses that reported significant effects, 87% found higher drinking ages associated with lower alcohol consumption; only 13% found the opposite. Almost ½ (46%) found no association between the legal age and indicators of alcohol consumption.
There were 57 published studies that assessed the effects of changes in the legal minimum drinking age on indicators of driving after drinking and traffic crashes. In the 57 studies, a total of 102 crash outcome measures were analyzed. Of the 102 analyses, 52 (51%) found a statistically significant inverse relationship between the legal drinking age and crashes, two found a positive relationship between legal drinking age and traffic crashes, and 12 analyses found an inverse relationship, but did not report significance levels. More than half of all analyses found that as the legal age was lowered, the number of crashes increased, and as the legal age was raised, the number of crashes decreased.
The authors also identified 24 published studies that assessed the effects of changes in the legal minimum drinking age on indicators of other health and social problem outcomes (such as suicide, homicide, or vandalism). Of the 24 studies, 61 outcome measures were analyzed. Of the 61 analyses, ten (16%) found a statistically significant inverse relationship and four found a positive relationship. In addition, there were two inverse relationship and one positive relationship studies that did not report significance levels. Of all the analyses that reported significant effects, 75% found that higher drinking ages were associated with lower rates of problems; 25% found the opposite. A full 72% of the analyses found no association between the legal age and indicators of other problems.
Conclusions:
The evidence suggests that there is statistically significant inverse relationship between the MLDA and alcohol consumption, traffic crashes, and alcohol-related problems (48% of higher quality studies. Only a small number of studies found a statistically significant, positive relationship between the MLDA and various outcomes (1% of higher quality studies). A large number of studies found no statistically significant relationship.
Implications for the Field:
In addition to a review of the literature on minimum legal drinking age studies, this study also summarized 13 issues that are raised in policy debates by those opposed to a legal drinking age of 21 and provides responses.

Aminzadeh, F., & Edwards, N. (2000). Factors associated with cane use among community dwelling older adults. Public Health Nursing, 17 (6), 474-483. return to list

Abstract:
Guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), this study examined factors associated with cane use among community dwelling older adults. Data were collected in a cross-sectional survey of a convenience sample of 106 community residing older adults in Ottawa, Canada. Using stepwise discriminant analysis, subjective norms, attitudes, and age surfaced as the key variables associated with cane use in this sample. The discriminant function accounted for 67% of the variance in cane use and correctly classified 91% of cases. The findings provide evidence for the utility of the TPB in its application to understanding cane use behaviors of older persons and have important implications for the design of theory-based fall prevention interventions to enhance the acceptance and effective use of mobility aids.

Mandell, W., Kim J., Latkin C.,& Suh, T. (1999). Do actions speak louder than words: Perceived peer influence on needle-sharing and cleaning in a sample of injection drug users. AIDS Education and Prevention. 11 (2), 122-131. return to list

Abstract:
Past research (Dielman, Burchart, Shope, and Miller, 1980) has found peer influence, perceived peer norms and perceived peer behavior as the strongest predictors of drug use in adolescent and young adult populations. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether verbal persuasion (peer norms) and/or observation of peer behavior (modeling) were significantly associated with the injection practices of unclean needle sharing and needle cleaning of 642 high-risk for HIV infection active injection drug users in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1991 and 1992. Using regression analyses to examine interview reports of infection practices, it was determined that subjects who reported observing more peer protective HIV-related behavior were also more likely to report lower frequencies of HIV risk behavior (unclean needle sharing) and increased frequencies of HIV protective behavior (always cleaning needles). Reports of "encouragement by peers to engage in cleaning needles" was paradoxically related to increased risk of sharing clean needles. In conclusion, peer behavior rather than verbal persuasion appears to influence injection practices.



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